Economies of scale are essentially a form of network effect (which is defined as a phenomenon where product gains value as more people use it).

In addition, every example you had benefits from traditional network effects: Amazon is a two sided marketplace with sellers and buyers.

Google connect searchers to websites, who in return allow Googlebot to scrape them freely (unlike your IP) - and also rank results by the way other users clicked.

> Google vs Bing vs Kagi

The business of Google and Bing is not providing searches in exchange for fees (that is a tiny tiny part of their business) but rather advertising. And there is for sure network effects for ad networks. Advertisers wanna advertise on the platform that has more eyeballs. Why are Google ads selling at a premium vs Bing Ads? Because more advertisers wanna use Google Ads because that is where 90% of search traffic is. If I start my own search engine with a 1000 users per day no one is going to buy ads for that search engine.

Of course one could say that search should not be a free service (paid by ads) and instead everyone should just pay for a search engine like Kagi. But that is not the reality we live in.

There are product ecosystems for b2b, and availability of skilled staff is often greater for big brand tools. I would like to see more use of and contribution to foss in Europe.

I agree with you. Amazon and Ali are not good examples though, as they are subject of the network effect still: the more people are on there, the more desirable they are. But the rest are not subject to it, almost at all. Other different synergies, yes, but not the network effect specifically.